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Coral reefs

Training
See also: coastal reef, coral atoll, and the structure and distribution of coral reefs
Most coral reefs were formed after the last glacial period, when the melting caused sea level rise and flooding of the platforms inland. This means that most coral reefs are less than 10,000 years old. As coral reef communities were established on the shelves, built reefs that grew up, along with increased sea level. The reef could not keep up could become drowned reefs, covered by such water was light enough for survival beyond.
Coral reefs are also found in the depths of the sea outside the continental shelves around oceanic islands such as atolls. The vast majority of these ocean coral islands are of volcanic origin. The few exceptions are of tectonic origin, where movements of the plates have raised the deep ocean floor to the surface.
In 1842 Charles Darwin published his first monograph, The Structure and Distribution coral reef. He explained his theory of the formation of coral atoll, an idea conceived during the voyage of the Beagle. His theory was that the atolls formed by the uplift and subsidence of the crust beneath the oceans. Darwin's theory provides a sequence of three stages in the formation of the atolls. It begins with a fringe reefs that form around an extinct volcanic island and the island on the ocean floor and subsidies. As the collapse continues, the reef strip becomes a barrier reef, and ultimately, an atoll.
Darwin's theory begins with a volcanic island that is dying
As the island bottom of the ocean and disappear, the growth of a coastal reef building coral, often including a gap between the earth and the main reef
As the collapse continues the fringing reef becomes a barrier reef further from the largest coastal lagoon with a larger and deeper inside
In short, the island is sinking under the sea, and the reef becomes an atoll encloses a lagoon open
A coastal reef can take ten thousand years to form and an atoll can take up to 30 million years
A small atoll in the Maldives.
Darwin predicted that under each lake would be a bedrock base, the remains of the volcano original. subsequent drilling has proved this correct. Darwin's theory followed by his understanding that the coral polyps grow in the clean seas of the tropics, where the water is stirred, but can only live within a limited depth of water, starting just below the low tide. When the underlying ground level remains the same, corals grow around the coast to form what he called fringing reefs, and may eventually grow out from the coast to become a barrier reef. Where the earth is rising, coral reefs can grow around the coast, but coral dies above sea level and becomes white limestone. If the land transfers gradually strip reefs to keep pace with rising growth on a dead coral reef, forming a barrier enclosing a lagoon between the reef and land. A coral barrier may surround an island, and once the island is sinking below sea level around a circular coral atoll growth continues to keep up with the level the sea, forming a central lagoon. Barrier reefs and atolls do not usually form complete circles, but in some places broken by the storms. Should be toppled ground too fast or sea level rise too rapidly, the coral dies, because it is below the depth habitable.
In general, the two main variables determining the geomorphology, or form, coral reefs are the nature of the underlying substrate on which they rest, and the history of change in sea level in relation with the substrate.
As an example of how coral reefs are formed on continental shelves, the structure of life for the reefs of the Great Barrier Reef began to grow about 20,000 years ago. Sea level was 120 meters (390 feet) lower than today. As sea level rose, water and corals invaded what had been in the hills of the coastal plain. 13,000 years ago sea level was 60 meters (200 feet) lower than today, and the hills of coastal plains, then, continental islands. As the sea level rise followed most of the continental islands were submerged. The corals could overgrow the hills, forming the current and coral cays. Sea levels in the Great Barrier Reef has not changed significantly over the past 6000 years and present age of the living reef structure is estimated at between 6,000 and 8,000 years. Although the Great Barrier Reef formed in a continental shelf, and not around an island volcanic apply the same principles described by Darwin's theory above. The Great Barrier Reef development was arrested at the stage barrier reef, as Australia is not about to plunge. Has formed the world's largest barrier reef, 3001000 meters (330-1100 feet) from the coast, and 2,000 kilometers (1,200 miles) long.
Healthy coral reefs grow horizontally 1-3 inches (0.39 to 1.2 in) per year, and grow vertically from 1-25 centimeters (0.412 in) per year, however, are limited to growing above a depth of 150 meters (490 feet) due to their need for sunlight, and can not grow on the sea level.
Type
The three main types of reefs are:
Strips of a coral reef that is directly connected to a shore or borders with a shallow channel or lagoon intervene.
Barrier coral reef separated from a mainland or the island by a deep lagoon.
A coral atoll of more or less circular or continuous barrier reef extends all the way around a lagoon without a central island.
Other types of reefs or variants are:
Review of an isolated reef comparatively small reef outcrops, usually within a lagoon or bay, often circular and surrounded by sand or seaweed. patch reefs are common.
Apron reef Short of a coral reef resembling a fringe, but more inclined, extending outward and downward from a point or peninsular shore.
Bank reef linear or a semi-circular in outline form, larger than a patch reef.
Ribbon reefs a long narrow, somewhat winding reef, usually associated an atoll lagoon.
Table isolated a coral reef, approaching an atoll type, but without a lagoon.
Village Cay in the Maldives
Microatolls certain species of coral communities form called microatolls. Microatolls vertical growth is limited by the level of mean tide. When different morphologies growth microatolls can be used as a low-resolution record of patterns of change in sea level. microatolls can also fossilized carbon dating radioactive dating. These methods have been used to reconstruct Holocene levels of the sea.
Cayos small, low elevation, sandy island formed in the surface of a coral reef. Material eroded from the reef piles up in parts of the reef or the lagoon, forming an area above sea level. The plants can stabilize the keys enough to make it habitable for humans. Cays occur in tropical environments throughout the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans (Even in the Caribbean and the Great Barrier Reef and the Belize Barrier Reef), where they provide habitable and agricultural land for hundreds of thousands of people. The surrounding reef ecosystems also provide food and construction materials for the inhabitants of the island.
When a coral reef can not keep up with the collapse of a volcanic island, a mountain guyot underwater or forms. The seamounts and guyots are below the surface of the ocean and can accommodate many species, depending on their location and depth. Seamounts are rounded at the top and guyots are flat. The flat top of the Guyot, also called is tablemount, due to erosion by waves, winds and processes air.
Distribution
Locations of coral reefs.
Limits for the 20 C isotherm. Most corals live within this limit. Note the cooler waters caused by upwelling on the southwest coast of Africa and the coast of Peru.
This map shows the areas of upwelling in red. Reefs Coral are not in coastal areas where cooler nutrient-rich upwellings occur
Coral reefs are estimated to cover 284,300 km square meters (109,800 miles square), which is slightly less than one percent of the area occupied by the world's oceans. The Indo-Pacific region (including the Red Sea Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia and the Pacific) accounting for 91.9% of this total. Southeast Asia accounts for 32.3% of that figure, while the Pacific including Australia accounts for 40.8%. Atlantic and Caribbean coral reefs only account for 7.6%.
Although corals exist in both temperate and tropical waters, reefs shallow water are formed only in a zone extending from 30 N to 30 S Ecuador. tropical corals do not grow at depths greater than 50 meters (160 feet). The optimum temperature for most coral reef is 2627 C, and there are few reefs in water less than 18 C. However, the reefs in the Persian Gulf have adapted at temperatures of 13 º C in winter and 38 º C in summer.
deep-sea coral is exceptional because there may still be at greater depths and temperatures cooler. Although deep water corals can form reefs, very little is known about them.
Coral reefs are rare along the West Coast, and along the west coast of Africa. This is mainly due to strong upwelling and cold sea currents that reduce water temperatures in these areas (Respectively, Peru, Benguela and Canary streams). The corals are rarely found along the southern coast of Asia from the eastern tip of India (Madras) to the border of Bangladesh and Myanmar. They are also rare along the northeast coast around South America and due to the release of fresh water from rivers Bangladesh Amazon and Ganges, respectively.
Main areas of coral and coral reefs of the world
The Great Barrier Reef - largest coral reef system of world, Buenos Aires, Australia.
The Belize Barrier Reef - second largest in the world, stretching from southern Quintana Roo, Mexico along the coast of Belize to the Bay Islands of Honduras.
The New Caledonia Barrier Reef - second largest barrier reef in the world twice, with a length of 1,500 km (930 miles).
The Andros, Bahamas Barrier Reef - The world's third largest, following the east coast of Andros Island, Bahamas between Andros and Nassau.
The Red Sea Coral Reef - located off the coast of Israel, Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia, Jordan, Saudi Arabia and Yemen.
Pulley Ridge - deepest photosynthetic coral reef, Florida.
scattered numerous reefs in the Maldives.
Ghe Raja Ampat Islands in West Papua province in Indonesia to offer the highest marine diversity known.
Biology
Anatomy of a coral polyp.
See also: Coral
Living coral should be considered as embedded small living animals calcium carbonate. It is a mistake to think of coral as plants or rocks. Coral is the accumulation of animals called polyps, arranged in various ways. Polyps are usually tiny, but can vary in size from a pinhead to a foot wide. The reefs grow along the polyps with calcium carbonate with other agencies deposits, the base of coral as a bone structure underneath and around themselves, pushing the coral "head" or upwards and outwards polyps. The waves, herbivorous fish (eg parrot fish), sea urchins, sponges, and other forces and organisms break coral skeletons into fragments that are deposited in the spaces in the structure of the reef. Many other organisms living on the reef contribute calcium carbonate skeleton in the same way. Coralline algae are important contributors to the reef structure in parts of the reef subjected to the greatest forces by waves (such as the reef front facing the open sea). These deposits of limestone in the sheets of seaweed on the reef surface, thereby strengthening it.
The building or hermatypic coral reefs are found only in the photic zone (above 50 m deep), the depth to which sunlight penetrates the water enough for photosynthesis to occur. Coral polyps not photosynthesis, but they a symbiotic relationship with unicellular organisms called zooxanthellae, these cells in the tissues of coral polyps carry out photosynthesis and produce excess of organic nutrients that are then used by the coral polyps. Because of this relationship, coral reefs grow much faster in clear water, that does not support more sunlight. In fact, the relationship is responsible for coral reefs in the sense that without their symbionts, coral growth would be too slow for the corals impressive structures to form reefs. Corals get up to 90% of their nutrients from their zooxanthellae symbionts.
Table coral
Close-up of polyps arranged in a coral, waving its tentacles. There can be thousands of polyps in a single branch of coral.
Corals can reproduce both sexually and asexually. A polyp individuals may use both modes of reproduction in their life. Corals reproduce sexually by either internal or external fertilization. Cells player is in the membranes that radiate inward mesentery of the layer of tissue that lines the stomach cavity. Some corals are hermaphroditic mature adults, while others are exclusively male or female. Some even change sex as they grow.
Internally fertilized eggs develop in the polyp for a period ranging from days to weeks. Further development produces a tiny larva, known as a planula. Externally fertilized eggs develop during the synchronized spawning. Polyps release eggs and sperm into the water simultaneously. The eggs are scattered over a large area. The spawning depends on four factors: time of year water temperature, and tidal and lunar cycles. Spawning is most successful when there is little variation between the tides. The less water movement, the greater the chance of fertilization. ideal moment occurs in the spring. The release of eggs or planula larvae usually occurs at night is sometimes in phase with the cycle Moon (36 days after full moon.) The period of the release to the settlement only lasts a few days, but some planulae can survive afloat for several weeks (7, 14). They are vulnerable to heavy predation and adverse environmental conditions. For the lucky few who survive to attach to substrate, the challenge comes from competition for food and space.
There are about a thousand species of coral, to build different forms such as wrinkles brain, cabbage, tables, deer antlers, cable wires and pillars.
Brain coral
Staghorn coral
Spiral wire coral
Pillar coral
Darwin's Paradox
paradox Darwin
Coral ... seem to proliferate when ocean waters are warm, poor, clear and exciting, which Darwin had already drawn their way through Tahiti in 1842.
This is a fundamental paradox, shown quantitatively by the seeming impossibility of balancing the inputs and outputs of nutrients that control metabolism of coral polyps.
recent oceanographic research has brought to light the reality of this paradox by confirmation that the oligotrophic ocean euphotic zone persists until the crest of the wave-battered reef. When you approach the edges of reefs and atolls of the quasi-wilderness of the open sea, the almost total absence of living matter suddenly becomes a plethora of life without transition. So, why is there something rather than nothing, and more specifically, where nutrients necessary for the operation of this machine is extraordinary coral reefs? Rougerie Francisco
During his voyage on the Beagle, Darwin described the reefs tropical coral oasis in the desert of the ocean. He reflected on the paradox that coral reefs, which are among the richest and most diverse ecosystems in the soil, they bloom when they are surrounded and supported by tropical ocean waters that provide almost no nutrients. He has been a challenge for scientists to explain this paradox.
Coral reefs cover less than one percent of the world's surface ocean, however, support more than one quarter of all marine species. This enormous number species results in complex food webs with large predatory fish eat smaller fish that feed on even smaller zooplankton forage and so on. However, all food webs ultimately depend on plants, which are the primary producers. And the primary productivity on a coral reef is high, resulting in a typical production of biomass of 5-10g C Day 1 m2.
tropical waters are often described as crystal clear. This is because they are deficient in nutrients and plankton to drift. The sun shines all year round in the tropics, the warming of the ocean surface layer so it is less dense than the layers of the subsoil. The warmer water is separated from the colder water for a stable thermocline, where the temperature causes a rapid change. This keeps the warm surface waters floating on the cold deeper waters. There is little interchange between these layers. The organisms die in aquatic environments in general, sink to the bottom where they decompose. This decomposition releases nutrients as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. These nutrients, N, P and K are necessary for plant growth, but in the tropics are not directly recycled back to the surface.
Plants are the base of the food chain, and sunlight and nutrients necessary to enable them to grow. In the ocean these plants are mainly a type of plankton, microscopic phytoplankton that drift in the water column. They need sunlight for photosynthesis, the determination carbon power, so they are only found in surface water. But they also need nutrients. Phytoplankton rapidly use the nutrients in surface waters and in the tropics these nutrients are not usually replaced because of the thermocline.
Coral polyps
The status of coral reefs is different. The gaps are formed by the upward growth of coral reefs filled with material eroded from the reef and the island. They become refuges for marine life, providing protection against the waves and storms.
Most importantly, the nutrients are recycled and not lost as if in the open sea. In coral reefs and lagoons, producers are phytoplankton, and marine worms, seaweeds and coralline algae, especially those small types called turf algae, spending their nutrients to the corals. Phytoplankton are eaten by fish and crustaceans, which also pass along the nutrients of the food chain. Recycling ensures that fewer nutrients are needed in general support the community.
Many corals harbor symbiotic organisms. In particular, there is remarkable symbioses between corals and algae Microscopic, the only cell known as a dinoflagellate zooxanthellae. The endosymbiotic zooxanthellae form a coral polyp, that is, living within the tissues of polyps. Energy must be absorbed site with special pigments, using photosynthesis to supply the polyp with organic nutrients as glucose, glycerol, and amino acids. Zooxanthellae can provide up to 90% of the energy needs of coral. In return, as an example of mutualism, the coral provides the zooxanthellae, with an average per million cubic centimeter reef, with a relatively safe place to live and a constant source of carbon dioxide needed for photosynthesis.
Corals are nocturnal feeders. Here, in the dark, coral polyps have extended their tentacles to feed on zooplankton
The color of coral depends on the type they host zooxanthellae
Corals also absorb nutrients, including inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus, directly from water. Many corals expand their tentacles at night to catch the zooplankton that branch when the water is stirred. Zooplankton provides the polyp with nitrogen, and shares some of the nitrogen polyps with zooxanthellae, which also require this element. The pigments of different species of coral zooxanthellae are different colors. Coral loses its zooxanthellae turns white and is said to be bleached, a condition that unless corrected can lead to coral death.
A 2001 paper reported that the sponges are another key to explaining the paradox of Darwin. These sponges living in the crevices of coral reefs. They feed efficiency of the filter, and the Red Sea that consume about sixty percent of the phytoplankton which drifts. The sponges absorb nutrients that phytoplankton are then excreted in the form of the coral can use.
Researchers in 2002 explained why coral thrives best stirred the waters. They found that the roughness of the surfaces of coral is the key. Normally there is a boundary layer of water around a submerged object, which acts as a barrier. But when the waves break on the extremely rough edges of the coral in the boundary layer breaks down, allowing access to the few corals nutrients that are there. The researchers say that the turbulent water promotes rapid growth of coral and lots of branching. Although coral ecosysemss are big on recycling, waste of a species becoming food for another, the researchers also claim that, without the nutritional benefits derived from rough surfaces coral, even more efficient recycling would leave corals lacking nutrients.
In 2004, another symbiotic organism, a bacteria called cyanobacteria, was discovered provide soluble nitrates for the coral through nitrogen fixation.
Coral reefs also are often dependent on other habitats as seagrass beds and mangroves around for the supply of nutrients. the supply of dead sea grass and mangrove plants and animals that are rich in nitrogen and also serve to feed the fish and reef animals by providing wood and vegetation. Turn reefs protect mangroves and seagrasses of the waves and produce sediments of mangroves and seagrass root in.
Zones
the coral reef ecosystems contain a number of distinct areas representing different types of habitat for fish and invertebrates. In general, three main zones are recognized: the reef front (outer part of the reef and deep) reef crest (Zone shallower and narrower than the waves break), and the reef back (behind the crest of reef near the coast and calm waters and protected) also frequently referred to as the reef lagoon.
The three areas are physically connected ecologically and to some extent, the life of the reefs ocean processes and creating ample opportunity for the exchange of ocean water, sediment, nutrients, and marine life, among others.
Thus, should be considered appropriately as an integral part of coral reef ecosystems, which are playing a role in supporting the fish most abundant and diverse that characterize coral reefs.
Most coral reefs in shallow water are less than fifty meters deep. Some are found in tropical continental shelves cool, nutrient rich upwelling does not occur, as the Great Barrier Reef. Others are in the depths of the ocean surrounding the islands and atolls such as in the Maldives. The reefs surrounding the islands when the islands are disappearing into the ocean, and the atolls were formed when the island disappears below the sea surface.
Moyle and Cech distinguish six major areas, although most have only a few reef areas.
The water surface area of the reef is often agitated. This diagram represents a reef in a continental shelf. Water waves on the course to the left on the ground outside the reef until they find the slope of the reef or fore reef. Then the waves pass over the crest of the shallow reef. When a wave reaches shallow water banks, ie, slows down and increases the height of the waves.
The surface of coral is the shallow reef. It is subject to constant increase of the waves and the rise and fall of tides. When waves in shallow fresh water areas, sand bank, as shown in the diagram on the right. This means that the water in the area of reef surface is often rough. These are the exact conditions under which coral flower. Shallowness means that there is plenty of light for photosynthesis, and stirred the water encourages the ability of corals that feed on plankton. However, other organisms such as fish and invertebrates, should be able to withstand the rugged conditions to flourish in this area.
On the ground outside reef is shallow seabed surrounding the reef. This zone applies to the reefs on the continental shelves. Tropical reefs around islands and low atolls abruptly at great depth, and do not have a plant outside the reefs. In general, sand, soil outside the reef often supports seagrass beds which are important feeding areas for reef fish.
The reef is lowered to its first 50 meters, the habitat for many reef fish are refuge in the cliff face and plankton in the water nearby. The area of the drop is mainly applied to the reefs around oceanic islands and atolls.
The face is the area reef above the floor of the coral reef or delivery. "Generally, the richest habitat for fish and invertebrates. Its complex coralline algae growth and calcareous provide countless cracks and crevices for protection and abundant epiphytic invertebrates and algae provide a rich source of food. "
The reef flat sand flat bottom may be behind the main reef, with pieces of coral. "The reef flat can be a buffer zone bordering a lagoon, or may be a flat area between the reef and rocky shore. In the first case, the number of fish species living in the area is often the highest of any area reef. "
The reef lagoon "many coral reefs, covering a total area, thus creating a tranquil lagoon water typically contains small patches of reef. "
However, the topography of coral reefs is constantly changing. Each reef is composed of irregular patches of algae, sessile invertebrates, and bare rock arena. The size, shape and relative abundance of these patches changes from year to year in response to various factors that favor one type of patch over another. Coral growth, for example, produces the constant change in the fine structure of the reef. On a larger scale, tropical storms can knock out large sections of reefs and rocky areas cause sand to move. "(Connell 1978)
Biodiversity
Tube sponges attracting cardinal fish, glassfish and wrasses
Reefs are also home to a variety of other organisms, including fish, seabirds, sponges, cnidarians (including some types of corals and jellyfish), worms, crustaceans (including shrimps, cleaner shrimps, lobsters and crabs), molluscs (including cephalopods), echinoderms (including starfish, urchins and sea cucumbers), tunicates, sea turtles and sea snakes. Aside from humans, mammals are rare on coral reefs, with visiting cetaceans such as Dolphin is the main exception. Some of these varied species feed directly on corals, while others feed on algae on the reef and participate in networks complex food web.
Researchers have found evidence of dominance of algae in the towns of healthy coral reefs. In surveys conducted in relation to much uninhabited U.S. Pacific islands, algae inhabit a large percentage of sites surveyed reefs. The algae population consists of turf algae, coralline algae and macroalgae.
Fish
Main article: Coral reef fish
Coral reefs are home to a variety of tropical fish and coral that can be distinguished. These include:
fish that are in accordance with corals (eg Labridae or gold) These types of fish feed either on small animals that live near coral, algae, or at the coral. Fish that feed on small animals are cleaner fish (these fish are fed between the jaws of large predatory fish), fish and triggerfish bullet (the sea urchins eat) while fish eat seaweed include Pomacentridae (damselfish). Serranidae cultivate algae by removing creatures feed on it (such as sea urchins), removing non-edible algae. The coral-eating fish including parrot and butterfly fish.
fish that swim near the reef. These include predatory fish such as branches, groupers, jacks, some types of sharks, Epinephelus marginatus, barracudas, snappers, ...) also include herbivorous fishes and eat plankton. Seagrass fish include eating mackerel, snapper, Pagellus, Conodon ... Plankton eating fish include caesia, manta ray, Chromis, Holocentridae, Pterapogon kauderni ...
Organizations can cover every square inch of a coral reef,
Generally, fish swimming in coral reefs are as colorful as the reef itself. Examples are the beautiful parrotfish, angelfish, damselfish, Pomacanthus paru, Clinid and butterfly fish. At night, a change to a less intense color. Besides goldfish matching its surroundings, other fish (eg fish predators and herbivores, such as hectoris Lampanyctodes, Holocentridae, Pterapogon kauderni, ...), As well as aquatic animals (Comatulida, Crinoidea, Ophiuroidea, ...) emerge and become active while the others rest.
Other groups fish found in coral reefs are groupers, grunts and wrasses. More than 4,000 species of fish inhabit coral reefs. It has been suggested that species fish that inhabit coral reefs are able to live together in such large numbers because any free-living space is inhabited by fish larvae planktonic first is found in what has been called "a lottery for living space."
Seabirds
Coral reef systems are important habitat for species of seabirds, some endangered. For example, Midway Atoll supports nearly three million seabirds, including two thirds (1.5 million) the global population of Laysan albatross, and a third of the global population of black-footed albatross. Each species of seabirds have specific sites where they nest on the atoll. In total, 17 species of seabirds live on Midway. The short-tailed albatross is the most rare, with fewer than 2,200 survivors after less excessive hunting in the nineteenth century.
Invertebrates
Invertebrates have their part in the reef food chain. For example, sea urchins, sea slugs eat seaweed Dotidae. Some species of sea urchins sea, such as Diadema antillarum, can play a key role in preventing excess algal reefs. hawksbill turtle, Nudibranchia and sea anemones eat sponges.
A number of invertebrates, collectively called cryptofauna, inhabit the coral skeleton substrate itself, either boring into the skeletons (through the process of bioerosion) or living in the existing holes and cracks. Animals are the rock boring sponges, molluscs, and sipunculids. Those who are installed on the reef include many other species, particularly crustaceans and worms.
Other
Sea snakes feed exclusively on fish and their eggs. Many birds forage in tropical reef fish, such as herons, gannets, pelicans and boobies. Some land-based reptiles may be associated with intermittent reefs, such as monitor lizards, sea snakes and crocodiles the semi as Laticauda colubrina.
Soft coral, cup coral, sponges and sea squirts
Crown-tipped coral fungus
Eastern coral snake
Bands coral shrimp
Caribbean reef squid
Giant Clam
Green Turtle
Shoaling reef fish
Economic Value
Coral reefs provide ecosystem services to tourism, fisheries and coastal protection. The economic value world's coral reefs has been estimated at $ 30 billion. Coral reefs protect coastlines by absorbing wave energy, and many small islands will not exist without its reef to protect them. According to WWF, the cost over a period of 25 years of destruction a mile coral reef is somewhere between $ 137,000 and $ 1,200,000. About 6 million tons of fish are taken every year from coral reefs. Well-managed coral reefs are performing annual 15 tons of seafood per square kilometer on average. Fishing for coral reefs in Southeast Asia only produce about 2.4 billion U.S. dollars annually of seafood.
Issues
Fringing reef island of Yap, Micronesia. Coral reefs are dying around the world.
Coral reefs are dying worldwide. Human activity may represent the greatest threat to coral reefs. In particular, coral mining, pollution (organic and inorganic) overfishing, blast fishing and the construction of access channels and islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems. Coral reefs also face high dangers of pollution, disease, destructive fishing practices and warming oceans. "In order to find answers to these problems, researchers study the various factors that impact reefs. The long list of factors, including the role the ocean as a sink for carbon dioxide, changes atmospheric, ultraviolet light, ocean acidification, biological virus, impacts of dust storms carrying agents as reef launched air and pollutants, algal blooms and others. The reefs are threatened and out of coastal areas.
Southeast Asia coral reefs are in danger of harmful fishing practices (such as cyanide and blast fishing), overfishing, sedimentation, pollution and bleaching. A variety of activities including education, regulation and the establishment of marine protected areas are under way to protect these reefs.
Indonesia is home to one third of the total coral the world and a quarter of its fish species, nearly 33,000 square miles (85,000 km2). coral reefs of Indonesia are in the heart of the Coral Triangle and have been victims of destructive fishing, unregulated tourism, and bleaching due to climate change. The data from 414 monitoring stations in the reef in 2000 found that only 6% are in excellent condition, while 24% are in good condition, and approximately 70% are in poor condition in stable condition (2003 Johns Hopkins University).
In 2007, Reef Check, the largest global reef conservation, said that only 5% of the Philippines 27,000 square kilometers of coral reefs are in "excellent condition" Tubbataha Reef, Marine Park in Palawan, Apo Island in Negros Oriental, Apo Reef in Puerto Galera, Mindoro, and Verde Island Passage in Batangas. Coral reefs of the Philippines is the second in Asia.
General estimates show approximately 10% of the world's coral reefs are already dead. An estimated 60% of the world's reefs are at risk due to destructive activities, related with men. The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia, where they are endangered, 80% of the reefs.
Fishing practices
See also: Overfishing and environmental effects of fishing
Many valuable fish species living around coral reefs. Sharks and reef fish intensively fished for fish markets. Seahorses and sea cucumbers are harvested for Chinese pharmacopoeia. Lobster is looking for the tourism industry, and shrimp for export.
Overfishing, especially selective overfishing, can unbalance reef ecosystems, promoting excessive growth of predators coral. Predators that eat live corals, as the crown of thorns starfish, corallivores are called. Coral reefs are built from hard corals, which was developed with large amounts of wax cetyl palmitate in their tissues. Most predators find this indigestible wax. The crown of thorns starfish is a large (up to a meter) starfish protected with long spikes, poisonous. We have a system of enzyme that dissolves the wax in hard corals, and allows the star sea to feed on live corals. Normally, the starfish is kept under control by giant sea snail newt. However, the giant triton is valued by its shell, and has been severely overfished. As a result, the crown of thorns starfish populations periodically explode unchecked, devastating coral reefs.
The giant triton overfishing eats the crown of thorns starfish
The crown of thorns starfish eats coral
Although some aquarium fish species can reproduce in the aquarium (as Pomacentridae), most (95%) were obtained from coral reefs. strong collection, especially in Southeast Asia (including Indonesia and the Philippines), reef damage. This is aggravated by destructive fishing practices, such as cyanide and blast fishing. Most (8.090%) aquarium fish in the Philippines are captured with sodium cyanide. This toxic chemical is dissolved in sea water and released to shelters fish. Drug is fish, which are then easily captured. However, most fish caught with cyanide die a few months after liver damage. Moreover, non-marketable species die in the field. A major catalyst of cyanide fishing is poverty in fishing communities. In areas like the Philippines, where cyanide is used regularly, the percentage of population below the poverty line is 40%. In these developing countries, a fisherman can resort to such practices in order to protect his family from hunger.
Dynamite fishing is another destructive method of collection of fish. Sticks of dynamite, grenades and explosives manufacturing home are simply thrown into the water. This fishing method kills fish in the area of the main explosion, along with many non-edible and / or unwanted animals reef. The blast also kills the corals in the area, eliminating the very structure of the reef, destroying the habitat of fish and animal species important for maintaining the other a healthy reef. Other destructive fishing methods, such as muroami and kayaking, killing all fish in certain areas, causing havoc in the reef ecosystem.
Hughes, et al., (2003) wrote that "with the growing population and improving the storage and transport systems, the scale of human impacts on reefs has grown exponentially. For example, fish markets and other natural resources have become global, supplying demand for reef resources. "
Pollution
Main article: Marine pollution
This image of an algal bloom on the south coast of England, though not in a region of coral, which shows flowering may look from a remote sensing satellite system
The runoff caused by farming and construction of roads, buildings, ports, channels and ports, may lead to land full of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and minerals. This nutrient-rich water can cause fleshy algae and phytoplankton in the development in coastal areas, known as algal blooms, which have the potential to create hypoxic conditions using all available oxygen. Some algae are toxic, and plants reduce both levels of sunlight and oxygen, killing marine organisms such as fish and coral. Adding too many nutrients such as phosphates and nitrates, a process known as eutrophication, is damage to the reefs. High nitrate levels are toxic to corals, while slowing the growth of phosphate coral skeleton.
Reefs near human populations may be faced with local stresses such as poor water quality from land based sources of pollution. Copper, a common industrial pollutant has been shown to interfere with the life history and development of coral polyps. Poor water quality has also been shown to encourage the spread of infectious diseases among corals.
Graphic Barbados dust
In addition to the runoff of soil, additional soil and sand is blown in other regions. The Saharan dust moving around the southern periphery of the subtropical ridge moves into the Caribbean and Florida during the warm season in the ridge builds and moves northward across the Atlantic subtropical. The powder can also be attributed to global transport of Gobi and Taklamakan deserts in Korea Japan and North Pacific to the Hawaiian Islands. Since 1970, the intrusions have worsened due to periods of drought in Africa. There is wide variation in transport dust to the Caribbean and Florida from year to year, however, the flow is greater during positive phases of the North Atlantic Oscillation. The USGS links dust events to a deterioration in the health of coral reefs in the Caribbean and Florida, especially since the 1970s. Studies have shown that corals can include dust their skeletons identified by the dust of the 1883 eruption of the volcano Krakatoa in Indonesia in the annular bands of reef-building coral Montastraea annularis in the tract Florida reef.
Climate change
See also: coral bleaching
Unbleached and bleached coral
Any increase in sea level due to climate change effectively ask coral to grow faster to keep pace. In addition, changes in water temperature can be very disturbing for corals. This was seen during the 1998 and 2004 El Nio weather phenomenon, in which sea surface temperatures rose well above normal, bleaching or killing many coral reefs. At sea surface temperature (SST), along with high irradiance (light intensity), resulting in the loss of zooxanthellae, symbiotic algae one, and pigmentation of dinoflagellates in corals causing coral bleaching. Zooxanthellae, representing 90% of energy to the machine reefs. Reefs can often recover from bleaching if they are healthy to start and the temperature of cold water. However, recovery may not be possible if the levels of CO2 rise to 500 ppm, it may not be enough carbonate ions present. See Hoegh-Guldberg 1999 for more information.
The warming also may underlie of a new emerging problem: the increase in coral diseases. Warming, thought to be the main cause of coral bleaching, coral weakens. As it weakened, the coral is much more prone to diseases such as black band disease, white band disease, skeletal eroding band. If global temperatures rise 2 C, corals may be unable to adapt quickly enough physiologically or genetically. It is estimated that, in order to counter the threat of acidification oceans through global warming, a reduction of up to 40% of current emissions is needed, and up to 95% in 2050. This requires reducing emissions reductions greater than currently proposed for these dates by the EU.
Ocean acidification
Main article: Ocean acidification
Bamboo coral is an early precursor of the ocean acification
Another problem related to climate change as ocean acidification. Ocean results acidification of the increases in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, increasing the amount of dissolved carbon dioxide in the oceans. Carbon dioxide dissolved gas reacts with water to form carbonic acid, and thus acidifies the oceans. This decreases the surface pH of the ocean is another concern long-term survival of coral reefs.
Surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from about 8.25 to 8.14 since the beginning of the industrial age and estimated to be reduced to 0.30.4 more units by 2100 as the ocean absorbs more anthropogenic carbon dioxide. Normally, the production conditions Calcium carbonate is stable in surface waters since the carbonate ion concentrations found in supersaturating. However, as ocean pH decreases, so does the concentration of this ion, and when carbonate becomes under-saturated structures made of calcium carbonate are vulnerable to dissolution. Research has found that a reduction in coral calcification or enhanced dissolution when exposed to elevated CO2.
Bamboo is a coral reef waters produces deep growth rings like a tree. Growth rings based on changing growth rates as a profound change of the sea state over time, and can also record the changes due to ocean acidification. This coral is particularly long life. Coral specimens as old as 4,000 years old have given scientists "4,000 years worth of information on what has been happening inside the deep ocean."
Other issues
Eroded coral
Within the past 20 years, once prolific seagrassbeds mangrove forests, which absorb large amounts of nutrients and sediments have been destroyed. Both the loss of wetlands and mangrove habitats seagrassbeds affect the water quality of coastal reefs.
Coral mining is another threat. Both small-scale gathering of the villagers and industrial-scale mining companies are serious threats. Mining is usually done to produce construction materials are valued as much as 50% cheaper than other rocks, as in the quarries. The rocks are ground and mixed with other materials such as cement make concrete. Old building used to be known as coral coral rag. Building directly on the reef also takes its toll, disrupting traffic water and the tides provide the nutrients to the reef. The compelling reason for building the reef is simply lack of space.
Boats and ships requiring stitches access to the bays and islands of loading and unloading of goods and people. To this end, parts of the reefs have been chopped away to clear the road. While this may seem a minor destruction of the reefs, the negative consequences may include altered water flow and altered tidal patterns lead to change in supply of nutrients from the reef, sometimes destroying a large part of the reef. Fishing vessels and other large ships ran aground on a reef occasions. There are two types of damage can result. collision damage occurs when a coral reef is crushed and split the hull of a ship in multiple fragments. Healing occurs when the propellers cut the live coral and expose the skeleton. The physical damage can be felt as grooves on the reef. Moorings also causes damage can be reduced through the use of mooring buoys.
Endangered Species
The global standard for recording threatened marine species is the IUCN Red List of Endangered Species. This list is based marine conservation priorities worldwide. A species is listed under the category of endangered if considered at risk critical, endangered or vulnerable. Other categories are near threatened and data deficient. For 2008, the IUCN has assessed all reef-building coral species known follows
Group
Species
Threatened
Near Threatened
Insufficient data
reef building corals
845
27%
20%
17%
The Coral Triangle (Indo-Malay Archipelago, Philippines) region has the largest coral reef in the category of endangered species and the greatest diversity of species of coral. The loss of coral reef ecosystems will have devastating effects on many marine species, as well as people that depend on reef resources for their livelihood.
Protected areas
Main article: Protecting coral reefs
Coral Reefs and Papua New Guinea fish
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have become increasingly important for reef management. Marine protected areas in Southeast Asia and elsewhere around the world attempt to promote responsible fisheries management and habitat protection. Like the national parks and refuges wildlife, marine protected areas prohibiting potentially damaging extraction activities. The objectives of the AMP are social and biological, including restoration reef, aesthetics, increased biodiversity and protected, and economic benefits. Conflicts surrounding MPAs involve lack of participation, clashing views and perceptions of effectiveness and financing.
Biosphere reserves are other protected areas that can protect the reefs. In addition, Marine Parks and World Heritage sites can protect the reefs. Heritage can also play a vital role. For example, the Chagos archipelago, Sian Ka'an, the Great Barrier Reef, Henderson Island, the Galapagos Islands, Belize Barrier Reef and Palau have been designated as protected by the nomination as a World Heritage Site.
In Australia, the Great Barrier Reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, and is the subject of much legislation, including a Biodiversity Action Plan.
The inhabitants of the island Ahus, Manus Province, Papua New Guinea, has continued practice of older generations, to restrict fishing in six areas of their reef lagoon. Cultural traditions allow fishing line, but net and spear fishing. The result is that both the biomass of individual fish sizes are significantly larger in these areas than in places where fishing is free.
Restoration technologies
Main article: Restoration of coral reefs
low voltage electrical currents applied through seawater crystallize minerals dissolved in steel structures. The resulting white carbonate (aragonite) is the same mineral that forms the natural coral reefs. Corals rapidly colonize and grow at accelerated rates in these structures coated. Electric currents also accelerate the formation and growth of chemical limestone rock and the skeletons of corals and other shell-bearing organisms. Near the anode and the cathode provides a high pH environment which inhibits the growth of filamentous and fleshy algae, which compete with corals for space. Increased rates of growth ceases when you stop the process of mineral buildup.
During the mineral accretion, corals settled show a higher growth rate and the size and density, but after the process is complete, growth rate and density back to levels that are comparable the corallites natural growth, and are about the same size or slightly smaller.
In large restoration projects, according to the type placement of coral, coral substrate hermatype I played often occurs with metal pins, glue or Milliput. Needle and thread can also attach a coral hermatype the substrate. Concrete has also been used to restore a large part of broken coral reefs. Finally, special structures such as reef balls can be placed to provide a base for coral growth.
Organizations
Organizations currently undertake coral reefs and atoll restoration projects using simple methods of plant propagation:
Coral Cay
Counterpart
U.S. Coral Reef Task Force (CRTF)
Institute National Coral Reef Initiative (CNRI)
U.S. Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA): Conservation Program Coral Reef
National Center for Coral Reef Research (NCORE)
Reef Ball
Southeast Florida Coral Reef Initiative (SEFCRI)
Foundation of South Pacific peoples
WorldFishCenter: Promotes sustainable mariculture techniques to grow as Tridacnidae reef organisms
Coral Restoration Foundation (IRC): Adopt a Coral
Organizations that promote the interest, provide the basis of knowledge about the survival of coral reefs, and promote activities to protect and restore coral reefs:
Society Coral Reef of Australia
Biosphere Foundation
Chagos Conservation Trust
Conservation Society of Pohnpei
Coral Reef Care
Reef Alliance (CORAL)
Coral Reef Targeted Research and development management capacity
Coral Triangle Initiative
Cousteau Society
Crusoe Choral Society
International CEDAM
Earthwatch
Environmental Defense Fund
International Environmental Solutions
Friends of the Saba Marine Park
Alliance Global Coral Reef (GCRA)
Reef World Coral
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority
ICRAN Mesoamerican Reef Alliance
International Marinelife Alliance
International Society for Reef Studies
Red Intercoast
Kosrae Conservation and Safety Organization
Marine Conservation Group
Marine Conservation Society
Mesoamerican Reef Tourism Initiative (MARTI)
NSF Moorea Coral Reef Long Term Ecological Research site
Nature Conservation
Ocean Voice International
PADI
Planetary Coral Reef Foundation
Practical Action
Reefkeeper Project
ReefBase
Reef Check
Reef Relief
Reefwatch
Seacology
SECOR
Singapore Underwater Federation
Society for Andaman and Nicobar Ecology
Tubbataha Foundation
Wildlife Conservation International
WWF
Reefs in the past
Ancient coral reefs
Throughout the history of Earth, from a few thousand years after the hard skeletons were developed by marine organisms, there were almost always reefs. The maximum development time were in the Middle Cambrian (513-501 Ma), Devonian (416-359 Ma) and Carboniferous (359-299 Ma), due to the extinct rugose corals Order and Late Cretaceous (100-65 Ma) and all the Neogene (23 Ma - present), due to the Order Scleractinia coral.
Not all reefs in the past were formed by corals: in the Cambrian (542 513 Ma) resulted from calcareous algae Archaeociata (cone-shaped small animals, probably related to sponges) and the Late Cretaceous (100-65 Ma), when there were no reefs also formed by a group called rudist bivalves, one of valve conical shape of the main structure and valve other, much smaller acted as a stopper.
See also
Ecology portal
Marine Biology
List of issues environmental
Notes
^ M Mulhall (2007) Saving the rainforests of the sea: A review of international efforts to conserve coral reefs Duke Environmental Law and Policy Forum 19:321351.
^ "Corals reveal impact of land use." ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies. http://www.coralcoe.org.au/news_stories/landimpacts.html. Retrieved July 12, 2007.
Coral reefs ^ The Encyclopedia of Earth, Updated February 27, 2009.
^ Darwin, Charles (1842), The structure and distribution Coral Reef. Be the first part of the geology of the voyage of the Beagle, under the command of Captain Fitzroy, RN during the 1832 years, 1836, London: Smith Elder and Co., http://darwin-online.org.uk/content / frameset? viewtype = text & Itemid = F271 and pageseq = 1
^ Ab Chancellor Gordon (2008), Introduction to Coral reefs, Darwin Online, http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_CoralReefs.html, accessed 20/01/2009
^ Animation training a coral atoll NOAA Ocean Educational Services. Retrieved on January 9, 2010.
Abc ^ Anderson, G (2003) Formation of Coral Reef Science Marinas.
^ Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (2006). "A picture is" great "view of the Great Barrier Reef" (PDF). Reef Facts Tour Guides. http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0017/12437/Reef-Facts-01.pdf. Retrieved June 18, 2007.
Ab ^ Tobin, Barry (1998, revised 2003). "How the Great Barrier Reef was formed." Australian Institute of Marine Science. http://www.aims.gov.au/pages/research/project-net/reefs/apnet-reefs00.html. Retrieved on November 22, 2006.
^ CRC Reef Research Centre Ltd. "What is the Great Barrier Reef?". http://www.reef.crc.org.au/discover/coralreefs/coralgbr.html. Retrieved on May 28, 2006.
^ Four types of Microdocs Coral Reef, Education at Stanford. Retrieved on January 10, 2010.
^ MSN Encarta (2006). "Great Barrier Reef. "Great Barrier Reef. Http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761575831/Great_Barrier_Reef.html. Retrieved December 11, 2006.
^ Smithers, SG and Woodroffe, CD (August 2000). "Microatolls as indicators of sea level on an atoll in the middle of the ocean.." Marine Geology 168 (14): 6178. doi: 10.1016/S0025-3227 (00) 00043-8. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V6M-40WDSPX-4&_user=10&_coverDate=08/15/2000&_rdoc=1&_fmt=summary&_orig=browse&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=844934e86d603e4aa8f0c42faa6b42ef.
^ Abcd Spalding, Mark, Corinna Ravilious, and Edmund Green. 2001. World Atlas of Coral Reefs. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press and UNEP-WCMC.
Achituv ^, Y. and Dubinsky, Z. 1990. Evolution and Zoogeography of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the World. Vol 25:1-8.
Ab ^ Book of Coral Reef Greenpeace
^ Ab Nybakken, James. 1997. Marine Biology: an ecological approach. 4th ed. Menlo Park, CA: Addison Wesley.
^ Ultra Marino: As far east of Indonesia, islands Raja Ampat embrace a phenomenal coral wilderness, David Doubilet, National Geographic, September 2007
^ Sherman, CDH "The importance of fine-scale environmental heterogeneity in determining levels of genotypic diversity and local adaptation. "Doctoral Thesis, University of Wollongong. 2006. Accessed on 06/07/2009.
^ Stacy, J., Marion, G., McCulloch, M. and Hoegh-Guldberg, O. "The long-term changes in the Mackay Whitsunday water quality and connectivity between terrestrial ecosystems, coral reefs and mangroves: Clues from coral proxy records and Remote Sensing - Research Summaries Link ARC grant (2004-2007). "University Queensland - Centre for Marine Studies. May 2007. Accessed on 06/07/2009.
^ Nothdurft, LD, "Microstructure and diagensis principles of scleractinian corals Newly built, Garza Reef, Great Barrier Reef: Implications for the analysis of paleoclimate. "Queensland University of Technology PhD thesis. 2007. Accessed 07/06/2009.
^ Wilson, RA "The biological notion of individual." Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. August 9, 2007. Retrieved on 06/07/2009.
^ Paul Marshall and Heidi Schuttenberg., Marshall, Pablo; Schuttenberg, Heidi. (2006). A Guide for Manager Reef coral bleaching. Townsville, Australia: Authority Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. ISBN 1 876945 40 0. http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/publications/misc_pub/a_reef_managers_guide_to_coral_bleaching.
^ Rougerie, F Operation of coral reefs and atolls: the paradox of paradigm ORSTOM, Papeete.
^ Sorokin, YI Ecology of Coral Reefs. Germany. Sringara-Herlag, Berlin Heidelberg. 1993.
Abc ^ Castro, Peter and Michael Huber. 2000. Marine Biology. 3rd ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
^ Http: / / oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/corals/coral02_zooxanthellae.html
^ A Guide to Reef coral bleaching Manager. Townsville, Australia: Authority Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. 2006. ISBN 1 876945 40 0. http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/publications/misc_pub/a_reef_managers_guide_to_coral_bleaching.
^ Coral reefs rich in water and nutrient-poor: Explanation of the paradox? National Geographic News November 7 2001.
^ Corals on foul play Darwin's Paradox New Scientist, September 21, 2002.
^ E Wilson (2004) "Fluorescent Coral Symbiotic bacteria, nitrogen-fixing" Chemical and Engineering News, 82 (33): 7.
^ Greenpeace Book of Coral Reef
^ Abcd Moyle and Cech, 2003, p. 556.
^ Vroom, Peter S., Page, Kimberly N., Kenyon, Jean C.; Brainard, Russell E. (2006), "Dominated Reef Algae," American Scientist 94 (5): 430 437.
^ The coexistence of species of fish reef lottery for living space PF Sale 1978 - Environmental Biology of Fishes, 1978
^ Http: / / the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2005/Jan/17/ln/ln23p.html
^ "U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service - Birds of Midway Islands." http://www.fws.gov/midway/midwaywildlifebirds.html. Retrieved on August 19, 2009.
^ Osborne, Patrick L. (2000). Tropical ecosystem and ecological concepts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 464. ISBN 0 521 64523 9.
^ Testimony of Dr. Lara J. Hansen before the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation, May 10, 2007.
Ab ^ Coral The importance of the WWF people. Retrieved January 12, 2009.
^ Ab Coral reefs around the world Guardian.co.uk September 2, 2009.
Space Daily ^ et al. (2009). "The hard coral reefs against the seaweed." Science. "
^ ABS-CBN Interactive, "RP coral reefs, the second largest in Asia, in bad condition
Ab ^ Kleypas, JA, Feely RA, Fabry VJ, C. Langdon, CL Sabine, and LL Robbins, 2006, the impacts of ocean acidification on coral reefs and other calcifying marine: A Guide for Future Research, NSF, NOAA, and USGS, 88 pp.
^ Save Our Seas, 1997 Summer Newsletter, Dr. Cindy Hunter and Dr. Alan Friedlander
^ Tun, K., LM Chou, A. Cabanban, VS Tuan, Philreefs, T. Yeemin, Suharsono, K. Sour, and the street D., 2004, p :235-276 C. Wilkinson (ed.), Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2004.
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The ^ PBS.org predators and Prey. Retrieved on December 11, 2009.
^ "Report CRC Reef Research Centre Technique No. 32 crown of thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) in the central region of the Great Barrier Reef. Results of fine-scale surveys conducted in 1999-2000. ". Http: / / www.reef.crc.org.au/publications/techreport/techrept32.htm. Retrieved on June 7, 2007.
^ CRC Reef Research Centre. "Crown of thorns starfish on the Great Barrier Reef." http://www.reef.crc.org.au/publications/brochures/COTS_web_Nov2003.pdf. Retrieved on August 28, 2006. (PDF)
^ "Lecchini David, Sandrine POLTI, Yohei NAKAMURA, Pascal Mosconi, Makoto Tsuchiya, Georges REMOISSENET, PLANES Serge (2006) "New perspectives on aquarium fish trade" Fisheries Science 72 (1), 4047. Blackwell Synergy. Http: / / www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1444-2906.2006.01114. x. Retrieved January 16, 2007.
^ "CIA World Factbook Philippines." CIA. https: / / www.cia.gov / library / publications / the-World-Factbook / geos / rp.html. Retrieved on 02 November 2006.
Ab ^ McClellan, Kate and Bruno, John (2008) Coral degradation through destructive fishing practices Encyclopedia of Earth. Retrieved 25 October 2008.
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^ Ab http://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/visions/coral/side.html
Eutrophication and coral ^
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^ Leahy, Stephen (2007). "Middle Environment: Between a reef and the wall. "NoticiasFinancieras.
PWGlynn ^ "to Coral Reef Bleaching: Ecological Perspectives" Earth Sciences and Environment. 12:01 March 1993 Vol.
^ Emission levels decrease ocean acidification
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^ Gattuso, J.-P., Frankignoulle, M., Bourge, I., Romaine, S. and Buddemeier, RW (1998). Effect of calcium carbonate saturation of seawater coral calcification. Glob. Planet. Change 18, 37-46.
^ "National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration - Deep-Sea Coral New Discovered in mission NOAA-supported ". Www.noaanews.noaa.gov. Http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2009/20090305_coral.html. Retrieved on May 11 ... About the Author

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2010 Basso Astra Carbon 700C Road Bike Frame Set Size 45 48 51 53    US $2,999.95

New BASSO DIAMANTE Carbon 700C Road Bike Frame Set Size 45 48 51 53    US $4,999.95

New 2009 Fuji D6 Tri Road Bike TT Triathalon Mens L 58 Matt Reed Ed Frameset    US $1,500.00

Advanced Pro Mitho Light Carbon Road Bike Frameset    US $599.99

2008 ORBEA OPAL 60cm Road Tri Bike Frameset Full Carbon W Fork Orange NEW    US $799.97

05 ORBEA LOBULAR 100 PRO 58cm Road Tri Bike Frameset Alloy Carbon Fork USED TEAM    US $499.97

05 ORBEA LOBULAR 54cm Road Bike Frameset Alloy Carbon W Fork USED DEMO    US $499.97

2006 ORBEA OPAL 48cm Road Bike Frameset Full Carbon W Fork Red TEAM BIKE USED    US $799.97

2004 Pinarello Opera Road Bike Frame Set 57 Steel Carbon Tour TT Triathlon    US $949.99

2012 Pinarello Dogma 2 Carbon Frameset Road Bike Cycling 54cm Authentic    US $4,499.99

Brand New Full Carbon Fiber 3K Road Bike Frame set 56cm Fork Headset FR302    US $419.00

Brand New Full Carbon Fiber 3K Road Bike Frame set 56cm Fork Headset FR04    US $399.00

Brand New Full Carbon Fiber 3K Road Bike Frame set 53cm Fork Headset FR04    US $399.00

Brand New Full Carbon Fiber 3K Road Bike Frame set 52cm Fork Headset FR302    US $419.00

Brand New Full Carbon Fiber 3K Road Bike Frame set 50cm Fork Headset FR304    US $399.00

Brand New Full Carbon Fiber 3K Road Bike Frame set 48cm Fork Headset FR04    US $399.00

Brand New Full Carbon Fiber 3K Road Bike 56cm Frame set Fork Headset FR01    US $399.00

Brand New Full Carbon Fiber 3K Road Bike 54cm Frame set Fork Headset FR01    US $399.00

Brand New Full Carbon Fiber 3K Road Bike 52cm Frame set Fork Headset FR01    US $399.00

Brand New Full Carbon Fiber 3K Road Bike 50cm Frame set Fork Headset FR01    US $399.00

Brand New Full Carbon Fiber 3K Road Bike 48cm Frame set Fork Headset FR01    US $399.00

Brand New Full Carbon Fiber 12K Road Bike 56cm Frame set Fork Headset FR01    US $399.00

Brand New Full Carbon Fiber 12K Road Bike 54cm Frame set Fork Headset FR01    US $399.00

Brand New Full Carbon Fiber 12K Road Bike 52cm Frame set Fork Headset FR01    US $399.00

Brand New Full Carbon Fiber 12K Road Bike 50cm Frame set Fork Headset FR01    US $399.00

Brand New Full Carbon Fiber 12K Road Bike 48cm Frame set Fork Headset FR01    US $399.00

De Rosa Avant Carbon Fiber 55cm Road Bike Frameset NEW Racing Frame    US $1,798.98

Good Condition 2009 Road Bike Cervelo P2 Frameset Parts Size 54 w o Wheel Set    US $2,350.00

NEW TITANIUM ROAD BIKE FRAME SET CARBON FORK WARRANTY    US $1,055.00

NEW TITANIUM ROAD BIKE FRAME SET CARBON FORK WARRANTY    US $1,035.00

2010 Pinarello FP7 Road Bike Frame Set New    US $1,800.00

80s Colnago MASTER OLYMPIC frameset 505cc SMALL vvgc red road bike Campagnolo    US $1,161.00

NEW 2012 Trek Madone 65 Project One Frame Set 56 CM Carbon Road Bike TT BB90    US $2,399.99

Full carbon road cycling frame fork 54cm aero bike frameset headset seatpost    US $522.00

2012 full carbon road cycling frame fork 56cm aero bike frameset seatpost    US $575.00

Vintage Italian BASSO Road bike frame fork 565cm frameset 1980s chromed    US $439.00

NEW Fetish Cycles Lamierina Triathlon TT Road Bike Frame set can customize    US $349.99

NEW Torelli Selvino Carbon Road Bike Frame Set Large    US $899.99

NEW 2011 Masi Evoluzione HMC Carbon Frame Set Road Bike 59cm Gloss Red Kenda    US $1,199.99

Eddy Merckx Titanium AX Road bike frame set w carbon fork 58 x 57cm ti Litespeed    US $999.00

Carbon Triathlon Time Trial TT frameset road bike frame 3k matt finish 54 56cm    US $635.00

M 54cm Scott Speedster Road Bike Frame Frameset Headset Aluminum Alloy Light    US $399.99

Grigio CRIT PRO FrameSet 80 degrees angle road tt bike super agressive angle    US $799.00

	GMC Denali Pro Road Bike (56cm Frame) List Price: $399.99
	Description The Denali PRO Road Bike from GMC delivers higher performance at a lower price. At the heart of the Denali PRO, youll find a high quality, hand-crafted lightweight aluminum frame for a stiff, responsive ride...

Track Fixie Road Bike Frame with Fork Black 53cm List Price: $250.00

Description Model: TFRim Size: 700cFrame Material: 6061 AlloyFork Material: 6061 Alloy with hole for brakeFork Size: Starstand 1-1/8"Headset: Sealed Bearing IncludedSeat Post: Alloy Dia: 27.2mm IncludedSeat Clamp: IncludedFrame Rear Stays Width:115mm, comes with brake holeFit Rear Hub Axle: 10mmFork Width: 100mmFit Front Hub Axle: 10mmBottom Bracket Thread: 68mm EnglishWeight (frame+fork+headset): 53cm: 2...

	Surly Stainless Steel Ring 36t x 110mm List Price: $40.00
	Description Surly Stainless 5bolt ChainringsUse of Surly rings with 9 and 10 speed chains will have a tight fit and require a short break in periodNo ramps or shift gatesMade from 304 stainlessItem SpecificationsColorSilverMaterial304 StainlessTeeth36teethBolt Pattern5-BoltChainring BCD110mmRing PositionMiddle,SingleChain Compatibility9-Speed,3/32"Defined ColorSilver